God and Nature Fall 2023
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By Daniel King
The Periodic Table of the Chemical Elements is a very practical and useful arrangement of the known elements, displayed in such a way as to represent much more information than what is explicitly written on it. However, I’ve found that its familiar presence in the classroom causes my students to take this spectacular collection of information for granted and not realize how young all this knowledge is.
Almost all the information found on the periodic table, whether explicit or implicit, has only been discovered in the last 200 years. In fact, of the 118 elements known today, only about ten were known prior to the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. Those few have in fact been known from antiquity, predating the work of even the earliest alchemists by thousands of years (though their nature as fundamental substances was not understood back then). Consequently, it is only necessary to look backwards by a few hundred years to observe the kind of scientific understandings that would have been ubiquitous during biblical times as well.
The Periodic Table of the Chemical Elements is a very practical and useful arrangement of the known elements, displayed in such a way as to represent much more information than what is explicitly written on it. However, I’ve found that its familiar presence in the classroom causes my students to take this spectacular collection of information for granted and not realize how young all this knowledge is.
Almost all the information found on the periodic table, whether explicit or implicit, has only been discovered in the last 200 years. In fact, of the 118 elements known today, only about ten were known prior to the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. Those few have in fact been known from antiquity, predating the work of even the earliest alchemists by thousands of years (though their nature as fundamental substances was not understood back then). Consequently, it is only necessary to look backwards by a few hundred years to observe the kind of scientific understandings that would have been ubiquitous during biblical times as well.
The Bible is rich with parallel narratives between the physical and the spiritual worlds. |
Given their importance in society, it is not surprising to find the majority of these elements (gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, sulfur) specifically mentioned in the Bible (1). Because charcoal (coal) and diamonds were known, some might consider including carbon in this discussion. However, my current emphasis here is intended to only include materials that were refined and known to be commodities in their singular pure forms (2). I have found it meaningful to guide my students in considering the physical world not only through the lens of scripture, but also within scripture, evaluating how materials, the elements in this case, are utilized throughout the Bible. Furthermore, the utility of materials is always related to their chemical properties, so such a biblical survey always emphasizes valuable general chemistry principles.
Of the elements expressly mentioned in the Bible, the metals and the nonmetal (sulfur) will be discussed separately because of their different properties. The metals appear with significantly different frequencies throughout the Bible. Tin, copper, and lead appear around 10 times (depending on bible translation) while iron is mentioned about 90 times. The precious metals silver and gold appear at much higher frequencies: about 300 and 440 times, respectively. Many of the references simply refer to the physical materials as commodities. These commodities are gathered (“a land where… you will lack nothing; a land where the rocks are iron and you can dig copper out of the hills,” (Deut. 8:9); traded (“they [Tarshish] exchanged silver, iron, tin and lead for your merchandise,” Ezek. 27:12); and even used as currency (“He also saw a poor widow put in two very small copper coins,” Luke 21:2). It is unsurprising that the authors of scripture, which covers thousands of years of cultural narrative, would mention these important materials of the day.
The hardest and most abundant of the elements, iron is commonly used for tools and weapons. Although iron may not symbolize holiness and appears to be specifically avoided in some holy contexts, it does represent strength, even the strength of the Son of Man’s future reign (Rev. 2:27). Copper, silver, and gold are slightly softer and easier to work with than iron and are used to make valuable items. Gold and, to a lesser extent, silver exhibit resistance to oxidation, which allow them to be used for the most precious or sacred of items in the tabernacle and the temple, and they clearly represent holiness. Ironically, the gold and silver-rich instructions for building the tabernacle (Ex. 26) and the subsequent description of its gold and silver-rich construction (Ex. 36-40) appear on either side of the rather disappointing event involving the Israelites turning from Yahweh and creating the golden calf (Ex. 32). These contrasting passages emphasize that, however unusual and precious these metals are, whether they lead to holiness or sinfulness depends on how they are used.
The second and perhaps more interesting use of these metals in biblical writing is in reference to how they are purified by fire. In Numbers 31, after defeating the Midianites, the soldiers were commanded that “Gold, silver, bronze, iron, tin, lead and anything else that can withstand fire must be put through the fire, and then it will be clean” (Num. 31:22-23). This passage, which specifically follows the actual burning of Midianite villages, emphasizes that not all materials can “withstand the fire.” Furthermore, there is the implication of a spiritual purification that mimics the physical purification process for these materials. Although some are literal, most of the uses of these metals in reference to purification occur as metaphors for the Israelites’ own need for purification, and consequently are commonly found in the writings of the prophets. Somewhat unnerving, however, is the imagery of just how difficult it has been or will be for the Israelites to be purified.
The refining of metals as a metaphor for spiritual purification is rich. The impurities that exist in these materials are quite literally internal contaminants: dross that must be purged. The impurities are equated to the Israelites’ corrupt actions. However, in two darker passages in Ezekiel 22 and Jeremiah 6, the Israelites are not only referred to as ores that contain impurities that need to be removed, but also as the dross: they, the people themselves, are the impurity that needs to be removed. In fact, Jeremiah 6 declares that the refining process “goes on in vain,” and they will be called “rejected silver,” implying that there is too much impurity and too little metal to refine, and they may be unsalvageable. In other words, dross (impurity) is not refined, it is to be removed, and, consequently, the remnants from the bottom of the furnaces can only be refined if enough metal remains.
While the metals are commonly used as metaphors for the Israelite’s need to be refined by the fire or God’s wrath, sulfur is often the substance of God’s wrath. Sulfur appears 14 times; seven times each in the Old Testament and New Testament, and all with an ominous sense of judgement. Two of these directly refer to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah with “raining fiery sulfur from heaven” (Gen. 19:24, Luke 17:29). Most of the other references are used to describe a prophetic future judgement that is very much like what was observed with Sodom and Gomorrah’s demise (Deut. 29:23, Job 18:15, Ps. 11:6, Isa. 30:33, Isa. 34:9, Ezek. 38:22, Rev. 9:18, Rev. 14:10). In Revelation 9:17, there is a simple physical reference to sulfur’s color: the riders’ breastplates are described as being yellow as sulfur before we are told about the more terrifying fire, smoke, and sulfur coming from the horses’ mouths. The remaining sulfur references appear in the description of a burning lake of sulfur into which the beast and false prophet (Rev. 19:20), the devil (Rev. 20:10), and sinners (Rev. 21:8) will be thrown.
The references of burning sulfur behaving like a liquid, as in Isaiah 30:33 “stream of burning sulfur,” Genesis 19:24 “rained down burning sulfur,” and in Revelation “burning lake of sulfur” are scientifically reasonable. Adding to the ominous judgment and condemnation surrounding the use of burning sulfur is the yet more unusual appearance of this liquid sulfur. Although yellow as a solid, liquid sulfur turns blood-red in color which, if ignited, would be accompanied by a blue flame. Furthermore, if one were to somehow withstand this fiery condemnation, the “torment” (Rev. 14:10, 20:10) would be real. In fact, for thousands of years people have been aware that burning sulfur was toxic, and they used it for fumigating and cleaning. Today we know that burning sulfur produces sulfur oxides, the precursor to sulfuric acid formed when inhaled, which is extremely corrosive and toxic. So, the ultimate destination for evil, as described in Revelation, is all the more foreboding with our more detailed image of a blood-red lake burning with a blue flame and spewing toxic, acrid fumes.
The Bible is rich with parallel narratives between the physical and the spiritual worlds. Students, and teachers for that matter, will benefit from surveys of physical materials and properties throughout the Bible. Without exception, we see evidence that the physical world is fallen and prone to decay (oxidation), albeit at different rates, as are our spiritual natures. And although there are mechanisms to delay or reverse the effects of decay, like recharging a battery, they are all merely temporary. Yet amidst this fallen world, there are clear glimpses of the perfection that was envisioned in its original design. We, along with the iron, copper, lead, and the rest of the physical world, long for the day of restoration when we will all gleam like shining gold, realizing our created potential (Ps. 68:13).
References
1 Weeks, Mary Elvira. "An exhibit of chemical substances mentioned in the Bible." Journal of Chemical Education 20, no. 2 (1943): 63.
2 Weeks, Mary Elvira. "The discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the alchemists." Journal of Chemical Education 9, no. 1 (1932): 11.
Daniel King earned a Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry from the University of Georgia and has been a professor at Taylor University for eighteen years. His research interests include characterizing plant cell wall proteins involved in crop disease, exercise metabolomics, and improving chemistry education practices.
Of the elements expressly mentioned in the Bible, the metals and the nonmetal (sulfur) will be discussed separately because of their different properties. The metals appear with significantly different frequencies throughout the Bible. Tin, copper, and lead appear around 10 times (depending on bible translation) while iron is mentioned about 90 times. The precious metals silver and gold appear at much higher frequencies: about 300 and 440 times, respectively. Many of the references simply refer to the physical materials as commodities. These commodities are gathered (“a land where… you will lack nothing; a land where the rocks are iron and you can dig copper out of the hills,” (Deut. 8:9); traded (“they [Tarshish] exchanged silver, iron, tin and lead for your merchandise,” Ezek. 27:12); and even used as currency (“He also saw a poor widow put in two very small copper coins,” Luke 21:2). It is unsurprising that the authors of scripture, which covers thousands of years of cultural narrative, would mention these important materials of the day.
The hardest and most abundant of the elements, iron is commonly used for tools and weapons. Although iron may not symbolize holiness and appears to be specifically avoided in some holy contexts, it does represent strength, even the strength of the Son of Man’s future reign (Rev. 2:27). Copper, silver, and gold are slightly softer and easier to work with than iron and are used to make valuable items. Gold and, to a lesser extent, silver exhibit resistance to oxidation, which allow them to be used for the most precious or sacred of items in the tabernacle and the temple, and they clearly represent holiness. Ironically, the gold and silver-rich instructions for building the tabernacle (Ex. 26) and the subsequent description of its gold and silver-rich construction (Ex. 36-40) appear on either side of the rather disappointing event involving the Israelites turning from Yahweh and creating the golden calf (Ex. 32). These contrasting passages emphasize that, however unusual and precious these metals are, whether they lead to holiness or sinfulness depends on how they are used.
The second and perhaps more interesting use of these metals in biblical writing is in reference to how they are purified by fire. In Numbers 31, after defeating the Midianites, the soldiers were commanded that “Gold, silver, bronze, iron, tin, lead and anything else that can withstand fire must be put through the fire, and then it will be clean” (Num. 31:22-23). This passage, which specifically follows the actual burning of Midianite villages, emphasizes that not all materials can “withstand the fire.” Furthermore, there is the implication of a spiritual purification that mimics the physical purification process for these materials. Although some are literal, most of the uses of these metals in reference to purification occur as metaphors for the Israelites’ own need for purification, and consequently are commonly found in the writings of the prophets. Somewhat unnerving, however, is the imagery of just how difficult it has been or will be for the Israelites to be purified.
The refining of metals as a metaphor for spiritual purification is rich. The impurities that exist in these materials are quite literally internal contaminants: dross that must be purged. The impurities are equated to the Israelites’ corrupt actions. However, in two darker passages in Ezekiel 22 and Jeremiah 6, the Israelites are not only referred to as ores that contain impurities that need to be removed, but also as the dross: they, the people themselves, are the impurity that needs to be removed. In fact, Jeremiah 6 declares that the refining process “goes on in vain,” and they will be called “rejected silver,” implying that there is too much impurity and too little metal to refine, and they may be unsalvageable. In other words, dross (impurity) is not refined, it is to be removed, and, consequently, the remnants from the bottom of the furnaces can only be refined if enough metal remains.
While the metals are commonly used as metaphors for the Israelite’s need to be refined by the fire or God’s wrath, sulfur is often the substance of God’s wrath. Sulfur appears 14 times; seven times each in the Old Testament and New Testament, and all with an ominous sense of judgement. Two of these directly refer to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah with “raining fiery sulfur from heaven” (Gen. 19:24, Luke 17:29). Most of the other references are used to describe a prophetic future judgement that is very much like what was observed with Sodom and Gomorrah’s demise (Deut. 29:23, Job 18:15, Ps. 11:6, Isa. 30:33, Isa. 34:9, Ezek. 38:22, Rev. 9:18, Rev. 14:10). In Revelation 9:17, there is a simple physical reference to sulfur’s color: the riders’ breastplates are described as being yellow as sulfur before we are told about the more terrifying fire, smoke, and sulfur coming from the horses’ mouths. The remaining sulfur references appear in the description of a burning lake of sulfur into which the beast and false prophet (Rev. 19:20), the devil (Rev. 20:10), and sinners (Rev. 21:8) will be thrown.
The references of burning sulfur behaving like a liquid, as in Isaiah 30:33 “stream of burning sulfur,” Genesis 19:24 “rained down burning sulfur,” and in Revelation “burning lake of sulfur” are scientifically reasonable. Adding to the ominous judgment and condemnation surrounding the use of burning sulfur is the yet more unusual appearance of this liquid sulfur. Although yellow as a solid, liquid sulfur turns blood-red in color which, if ignited, would be accompanied by a blue flame. Furthermore, if one were to somehow withstand this fiery condemnation, the “torment” (Rev. 14:10, 20:10) would be real. In fact, for thousands of years people have been aware that burning sulfur was toxic, and they used it for fumigating and cleaning. Today we know that burning sulfur produces sulfur oxides, the precursor to sulfuric acid formed when inhaled, which is extremely corrosive and toxic. So, the ultimate destination for evil, as described in Revelation, is all the more foreboding with our more detailed image of a blood-red lake burning with a blue flame and spewing toxic, acrid fumes.
The Bible is rich with parallel narratives between the physical and the spiritual worlds. Students, and teachers for that matter, will benefit from surveys of physical materials and properties throughout the Bible. Without exception, we see evidence that the physical world is fallen and prone to decay (oxidation), albeit at different rates, as are our spiritual natures. And although there are mechanisms to delay or reverse the effects of decay, like recharging a battery, they are all merely temporary. Yet amidst this fallen world, there are clear glimpses of the perfection that was envisioned in its original design. We, along with the iron, copper, lead, and the rest of the physical world, long for the day of restoration when we will all gleam like shining gold, realizing our created potential (Ps. 68:13).
References
1 Weeks, Mary Elvira. "An exhibit of chemical substances mentioned in the Bible." Journal of Chemical Education 20, no. 2 (1943): 63.
2 Weeks, Mary Elvira. "The discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the alchemists." Journal of Chemical Education 9, no. 1 (1932): 11.
Daniel King earned a Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry from the University of Georgia and has been a professor at Taylor University for eighteen years. His research interests include characterizing plant cell wall proteins involved in crop disease, exercise metabolomics, and improving chemistry education practices.