God & Nature Magazine
  • Winter 2023 Issue
    • Letter From the Editors
    • Braden, A Modern Bestiary
    • Garte, Assembly Theory
    • Defoe, The Heavens Declare
    • Greenberg, Bonding
    • Barrigar, God's Big Story
    • Phillippy, Overcoming Paradox
    • Bostrom, Near
    • Clifford, Hidden Figures
  • Fall 2022 Issue
    • Letter Fall22
    • Curry, Attentiveness
    • Russo, Deconstruction
    • Touryan, Four Forces
    • Mittchell, Three Words
    • Philippy, Math Theology Fall 22
    • Bostrom, Goodbyes
    • Clifford FAll 22
    • Linsley, Mystic Exile
    • Hall, A Call to Arms
  • Summer 2022 Issue
    • Letter Summer 2022
    • Engelking, Neurotheology
    • Kelley, Environmentalism
    • Garte, Sandpipers
    • Madison, Cultivating Contentment
    • Collins, Answers on Evolution
    • Touryan, Tentmakers
    • Oord, Ever-Creative God
    • Bostrom, Mentors
    • Clifford, Carbon and Sin
    • Campbell, Just, In Time
  • Past Issues
    • Spring 2022 Issue >
      • Letter from the Editors Spring 2022
      • Curry, Knowldege and Truth
      • Pinkham, On a Car Emblem
      • Murray, Candling the Egg
      • Carr, Music, Math, Religion
      • Smith, Wonder and Longing
      • Linsky, Cyber Service
      • Bostrom, Buteo
      • Obi, Coincidences
    • Winter 2022 Issue >
      • Garte &Albert Letter Winter 2022
      • Thuraisingham Pondering Invisible
      • Cornwell Mediations from Molecular Biologist
      • Fagunwa Blsck Scientist & Church Father
      • Garte A Dialogue
      • Gonzalez Being Human
      • Klein Naturalist in Two Worlds
      • Bostrom Creeds
      • Clifford Winter 2022
      • Ardern Contact Points
      • Cooper Imagine No Christmas
    • Fall 2021 Issue >
      • Garte &Albert Letter Fall2021
      • Johnson, God Winks
      • Cottraux, Ancient Aliens
      • Arveson, Anti-Vax Email
      • Gammon, Evolutionary Insights
      • Mitchell, No One Told Me
      • Rummo, Faith in the Invisible
      • Bostrom, Fall Furrows
      • Lemcio, A Franciscan Weekend
      • Funk, Plant Haiku
      • Robinson & Lim, Who is God?
    • Summer 2021 Issue >
      • Garte &Albert Letter Sum2021
      • Warren, Immunization and Salvation
      • Defoe, Bernard Ramm
      • Cornwell Canine to Divine
      • Mix, Running with Nature
      • Pinkham, Scuba Divers
      • Cao, Physics and Bible
      • Bostrom, Sugar Birds
      • Clifford Sum21
      • Oostema, Evolution of Faith
      • Hall, Generation upon Generation
    • Spring 2021 Issue >
      • Garte and Albert Letter Spring 2021
      • Loikanen, Divine Action
      • Madison, Humus and Humility
      • Lappin, Puddles and Persons
      • Cornwell, God's GPS
      • Touryan, Contolled Fusion
      • Russo, Vaccine and Salvation
      • Bostrom, Short-eared Owl
      • Redkoles, Expect Unexpected
      • Clifford, Boring
      • McFarland, Imposition of Carbon
      • Lemcio, Manis Mastodon
    • Winter 2021 Issue >
      • Winter 2021 Contents >
        • Garte and Albert Letter from the Editors
        • Burnett How iit All Started
        • Isaac Director's Corner
        • Ruppel Herrington, First Editor
        • Burnett Origin of Lire
        • Hearn Balance
        • Middleton Natural Theology
        • Story Antibodies and Randomness
        • Lamoureux I Sleep a Lot
        • Warren Overloaded Brains
        • Isaac Knowledge of Information
        • Bancewicz Wonder and Zebrafish
        • Oord Photoessay
        • Albert Hope in Winter
        • Clifford Storytelling & Drama in Teaching
        • Pohl The Column (Poetry)
    • Fall 2020 Issue >
      • Letter from Editors
      • Pohl, Panpsychism and Microbiome
      • Reyes, Communion During Loss
      • Griffin, Hands On
      • Azarvan, Science and Limits
      • Cornwell, Search Engines for God
      • Thuraisingham, Duality of Humans and Particles
      • Touryan, Prayers of Petition
      • George, Perfect Vision
      • Declare the Glory, Green: Awe
      • Bostrom Purpose
      • Oord, Theological Photoessay
      • Clifford, Food, Water, Waste
    • Summer 2020 Issue >
      • Summer 2020 Contents >
        • Editors Letter Summer2020
        • Jones, Science Faith Duopoly
        • Mix, God and the Virus
        • Warner, COVID-19 and Goodness of Creation
        • Gonzalez, Pandemic and Groaning of Creation
        • Johnson, Star Wars Food
        • Pyle, It Takes a (Medical ) Village
        • Arveson, Use for 3D Printers
        • Peterson, Pandemic and Research
        • Zeidan, Mentorship Online
        • Oleskeiwicz, Dragonfly on Water
        • Carr, COVID-19 and Climate Change
        • Nierrman, The Squirrel
        • Cornwell, COVIS-19 Bucket List
        • Bostrom, Grass Thoughts
        • Clifford, Summ20 Conflict
    • Spring 2020 Issue >
      • Letter from the Editors SP20
      • AD
      • Murphy, Nature and Calvary
      • Dickin, The Flood and Genesis 1
      • Gruenberg, Empiricism and Christian Spirituality
      • Ungureanu, Science, Religion, Protestant Tradition
      • Russo, How does it End?
      • Siegrist, Problems with Materialism
      • Ohlman, 20/20 in 2020
      • Warren, Rock Frogs
      • Edwards, Sanctuary
      • Bostrom, Clothed
      • Clifford, The Lent of Lockdown Spring 2020
      • Hall, 1:30 AM on a Tuesday (Poem)
    • Winter 2020 Issue >
      • Letter from the Editor Winter 2020
      • AD
      • Wimberly Inheritance, Meaning and Code
      • Defoe; A Pastor's Journey
      • Mix The Ends of the World
      • Pevarnik Limits of Physics
      • Greenberg "Godly" Science
      • Pinkham Teleological Thinking
      • Alexanian How to Witness
      • "Declare the Glory" Neal, Cross, Gait
      • Clifford "Across the Pond" Winter 2020
      • Oord "Theological Photoessays" Winter 2020
      • Salviander The Objective Man (Poem)
      • Ohlman Orphan of the Universe (Poem)
      • Lemcio Grey's Anatomy (Poem)
    • Fall 2019 Issue >
      • Letter from the Editor Fall 2019
      • Phillippy Mathematics and God
      • Pohl & Thoelen Databases
      • Garte Limits of Science
      • Mitroka Healthy Lifestyle
      • Sigmon Science and Revelation
      • Mariani Compatibility Creation and Evolution
      • Anders Theistic Evolution
      • Touryan Are we alone
      • Johnson Purpose and Source
      • Declare the Glory Curry, Smith, Best
      • Clifford "Across the Pond" Fall 19
      • Oord "Theological Photoessays Fall 19
      • Eyte Cross Cascade "Poem"
    • Summer 2019 Issue >
      • Letter from the Editor Summer 2019
      • Arveson Is There a “Theory of Everything”
      • Anderson The History and Philosophy of Science and Faith
      • Tolsma Science in Church
      • Salviander Black Holes and Atheism
      • Johnson Practical Problems for Literal Adam
      • Hall God and the Assumptions of Scientific Research
      • Linsky Overcoming Misconceptions
      • Wilder Sanctity of Creation
      • Clifford "Across the Pond" Summer19
      • Oord "Theological Photoessays" Summer 2019
      • Flaig Time and Me (Poem)
    • Spring 2019: Creation Care and Environment >
      • Letter from the Editor Spring 2019
      • Bancewicz;Sustainability Pledge: Why the Environment is My Problem
      • Lin; Environmental Problems as a Place for Compromise and Dialogue
      • Garvey; Where the Fall Really Lies
      • Lewis; Solar-Powered Life: Providing Food, Oxygen and Protection
      • Garte; Time and Human Impact on the Environment
      • Mays; Reforming Science Textbooks
      • Carr; Cosmic Energy First, Then Matter: A Spiritual Ethic
      • Kincanon; The Young Earthers and Leibniz
      • Declare the Glory Gauger
      • Clifford "Across the Pond" Spring 2019
      • Oord; Photoessay. Theological Photo Essays
      • Rivera; Photoessay. Digital Artwork: Images of Jesus
      • Albert; Poem. A Goldfish Sings a Tentative Psalm
      • Armstrong; Poem Holy Sonnet XI
    • Winter 2019: Education and Outreach 2 >
      • Letter from the Editor, Winter 2009
      • Applegate; Project Under Construction: Faith Integration Resource for High School Biology
      • LaBelle; Sidewalk Astronomy Evangelism - Taking it to the Streets!
      • Reed; Speaking to the Heart and Mind of Students about Evolution and Creation
      • Marcus; The Conflict Model
      • Rivera; The Implicit Assumptions behind Hitchen's Razor
      • Russo; Redeeming Bias in Discussion of Science and Faith
      • Fischer; Origins, Genesis and Adam
      • Clifford Column, Winter 2019
      • Gait; Photoessay - Stripes
      • Lee; Poem. In Chaos and Nothingness
    • Fall 2018: Education and Outreach 1 >
      • Letter from the Editor Fall 2018
      • Glaze; A Walk within Two Worlds: Faith, Science, and Evolution Advocacy
      • Johnson; Teaching the Controversy in Texas
      • Cootsona; Mere Christianity, Mainstream Science and Emerging Adults
      • Kindstedt; Creating a Third Culture
      • Zeidan; An Effective Way to Integrate Supportive Communication and Christian Belief into Virtual Classrooms
      • Marshall; A New Model of Causation
      • McClure; Nothing in the Bible Makes Sense Except in the Light of Grace
      • Frank; Christianity, Science and Teamwork
      • Assad/Reyes; Interview. Discovering a Renewed Sense of Awe and Wonder about God
      • Clifford Column Fall 2018
      • Menninga; Photoessay. What do These Stones Mean?
    • Summer 2018: Judgment and Peer Review >
      • Letter from the Editors Summer 2018
      • Jones; Peer Review: Avoiding Judgmentalism
      • Arnold; Discovering Spiritual Information Through Peer-Reviewed Science
      • Peterson; Peering at Double-Blind Peer Review
      • Smith; A Philosophical Influence from the Scientific Revolution on Scientific Judgment
      • Mix; The Poetry of Probability
      • Mobley; Randomness vs. the Providence of God?
      • Gordon; Chances are Good: Design and Chance in Genesis 1
      • Siegrist; But the Multiverse...!
      • Reyes; The Community Table: Interview with Marianne Johnson
      • Clifford Column Summer 2018
      • Hill; Poem. Synthesis
      • Lemcio; Poem. I Could See Where This was Going
      • Oord: Photoessay
    • Spring 2018: Chance & Design >
      • Letter from the Editors
      • Bishop; God, Love and Chance
      • Bonham; Quantum Reflections
      • Spaulding; God as Designer
      • Garte; Teleology in Evolution
      • Hall; God, Chance and Buridan's Ox
      • Pohl; Why We Need a Third Culture in Church
      • Dorman; Liturgical Brain
      • Warren; Galapagos
      • Blanchard; On Christian Science
      • Touryan; The Cross as a Cosmic Filter
    • Winter 2018: Race & Inheritance >
      • A Note from the Editors
      • Essay: “Some Pastoral Considerations of CRISPR CAS 9 Gene Editing” by Mario A Russo
      • Essay: “The Genetics and Theology of Race” by Sy Garte
      • Essay: "Grieve the Segregation of Science" by S. Joshua Swamidass
      • Poem: "Cardboard Man" by Ciara Reyes
      • Featured Interview: “Love Is Risk” with Carolyn Finney
      • Essay & Poem: “Abortion Languages: Love, fear, confusion and loss”
      • Essay: "Why the Church Needs Intersectional Feminism" by Emily Herrington
      • Essay: “Elected to Salvation (and other things?)” by Bill Leonard
      • Essay: “Local Colour: A reflection on family, history, and heritage” by Mike Clifford
      • Interview: Corina Newsome, environmentalist and animal keeper
      • Essay: “Spiritual Kin Selection” by Steve Roels
      • Photo Essay: "Trouble in Paradise: Plastic pollution in the Bahamas" by Grace Swing & Robert D Sluka
      • Essay: “Race & Inheritance: Personal reflections and annotations” by Walt Hearn
      • Interview: Carla Ramos, molecular biologist
      • Clifford Column; Discipine Hopping
      • Lemcio; Waves
      • Harris Artwork
      • Hearn; Eulogy - Beyond Science,
    • Summer 17: Cosmology & Theology >
      • Letter from the Editors: Summer 2017
      • Essay: "The News from My Home Galaxy" by Walt Hearn
      • Interview: "Deep Incarnation & the Cosmos: A Conversation with Niels Henrik Gregersen" by Ciara Reyes & Niels Henrik Gregersen
      • Photo Essay: "Breath & Dust" by Kathleen Eady
      • Essay: "Why the Eagle Nebula Just Doesn’t Do It For Me" by Mike Clifford
      • Essay: "The Cosmos in My Hand" by Lucas Mix
      • Interview: “What is Life? On Earth and Beyond” with Andreas Losch
      • Artwork by Missy Pellone
      • Essay: "When God & Science Hide Reality" by Davis Woodworth
      • Essay: "​In Search of Wonder: A Reflection on Reconciling Medieval and Modern Cosmology" by Monica Bennett
      • Essay: "If Christianity and Cosmology Are in Conflict, Whose Side Is Philosophy on?" by Vaughan Rees
    • Winter/Spring 17: "Flesh & Blood" >
      • Letter from the Editor: Winter/Spring 2017
      • Essay: "Probiotics, Prebiotics, Synbiotics: On microbiomes and the meaning of life" by John F. Pohl
      • Essay: "With All Your Mind" by Paul S. Kindsedt
      • Essay: "The Stuff of Life" by Mike Clifford
      • Essay: "Experiencing God’s Love in a Secular Society: A Christian experience with socialized medicine" by Alison Noble
      • Poem: "The Problem with Pain" by Eugne E. Lemcio
      • Essay: "Thoughts of Death in a Cruel World: Job’s suicidal ideation and the “right” Christian response to depression" by Jennifer Michael Hecht and Emily Herrington
      • Essay: "Tissues at Issue" by Walt Hearn
      • Essay: "The Dilemma of Modern Christianity" by Tony Mitchell
      • Poem: "Light" by Billie Holladay Skelley
      • Essay: "Some Theological Implications of Science: Revisiting the Ant" by Mario A. Russo
    • Summer/Fall 16: "Stewardship of Words" >
      • Letter from the Editor: Summer 2016
      • Levity: "Walt Being Walt: Excerpts from the ASA newsletter" by Walt Hearn (compiled by Jack Haas & Emily Ruppel)
      • Poem: "A Prayer Tribute to Walt and Ginny Hearn" by Paul Fayter
      • Essay: "Authentic Science & Authentic Christian Faith" by Paul Arveson
      • Essay: "On Modern-Day Saints & Epistles" by Emily Ruppel
      • Essay: "​Mathematics and the Religious Impulse" by Karl Giberson
      • Poem: "The Wasteful Gene" by Eugne E. Lemcio
      • Three Poems by Dan Eumurian
      • Excerpts from: "The Dictionary of Daily Life in Biblical and Post-Biblical Antiquity" by Edwin Yamauchi
      • Essay: "A Comprehensible Universe: The blessing from God that makes science possible" by Bob Kaita
      • Poem: "The Epistolarian" by Emily Ruppel
    • Spring 16: "Brain Science" >
      • Letter from the Editor: Spring 2016
      • Essay: "Ancient Q, Modern A (?)" by Walt Hearn
      • Essay: "Souls, Brains and People: Who or what are we?" by Gareth D. Jones
      • Essay: "A Functional Theology of Psychopathology" by Edgar Paul Herrington IV
      • Three Poems by Richard Gillum
      • Essay: "Thoughts of Death in an Unkind World: Job’s suicidal ideation and the “right” Christian response to depression" by Jennifer Michael Hecht
      • Short Story: "Malefic" by Jeffrey Allen Mays
      • Essay: "An Engineer Visits a Mindfulness Workshop" by Mike Clifford
      • Essay: "Traces of Trauma in the Body of Christ: The case of The Place of Refuge" by Elizabeth Hernandez
      • Essay: "Did God ‘Create’ Science? Christianity and the uniqueness of the human brain" by William H. Church
    • Winter 16: "Quantum Physics/Epigenetics" >
      • Letter from the Editor: Winter 2016
      • Essay: "God and the New Evolutionary Biology" by Sy Garte
      • Essay: "Quantum Mechanics and the Question of Divine Knowledge" by Stephen J. Robinson
      • Essay: "Creation Out of... Physics?" by Joshua Scott
      • Essay: "Of Books and Bosons" by Mike Clifford
      • Essay: "Words, Words, Words" by Walt Hearn
      • Poem: "Encountering Ernst Haeckel’s 'Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny'" by Eugene Lemcio
      • Essay: "The Extended Evolutionary Synthesis: New conversations and theological questions at the horizons of modern science" by Michael Burdett
      • Poem: "The Difference" by Emily Ruppel
      • Essay: "Maupertuis's Ghost: Finding God in 'action'" by Colin C. Campbell
    • Fall 15: "Technology" >
      • Letter from the Editor: Fall 2015
      • Essay: "‘Braving the New World (Wide Web): Mapping Theological Response to Media" by Justin A. Bailey
      • Poem: "Entropy and Enthalpy" by Glenn R. McGlaughlin
      • Essay: "‘How Proactive Should Christians Be in Learning about Emerging Biomedical Technologies?" by D. Gareth Jones
      • Essay: "‘Can We Fix It? Erm..." by Mike Clifford
      • Poem: "To My Dear Parents" by Sarah Ruden
      • Essay: "‘Which Side, Lord?" by Walt Hearn
      • Poem: "The Column" by John F. Pohl
      • Essay: "‘Technology and the Church" by Derek Schuurman
      • Poem: "On the Shores of Oroumieh" by Emily Ruppel
      • Essay: "‘Technology as Discipline" by Johnny Wei-Bing Lin
    • Summer 15: "Doubt" >
      • Letter from the Editor: Summer 2015
      • Essay: "‘The Road Not Taken’: A personal reflection on careers, counterfactuals and callings" by Tim Middleton
      • Essay: "The Gift of Doubt in My Life" by Rev. Paul Herrington
      • Poem: "The Marsh Birds" by Sarah Ruden
      • Essay: "On St Brendan and the Pendulum of Postgraduate Study" by Mike Clifford
      • Essay: "Doubt: The Invisible Conversation" by Karl W. Giberson
      • Essay: "Doubt, Faith, and Crevasses on My Mind" by Peter M. J. Hess
      • Poem: "Magdalene" by Leonore Wilson
      • Essay: "Breaking Barriers, Ministering in Relationships, and Exemplifying the Gospel" by Stephen Contakes, et al.
      • Poem: "On the Extinction of Matter Near a Black Hole" by Ruth Hoppin
      • Essay: "Sometimes I Doubt..." by Walt Hearn
      • Essay: "The Risks of Love and Life's Big Questions" by Thomas Jay Oord
    • Spring 15: "Animals/Imago Dei" >
      • Letter from the Editor: Spring 2015
      • Essay: "50 Years of Wilderness: a Christian perspective" by Peter van der Burgt
      • Essay: "All Creatures Great and Small " by Walt Hearn
      • Essay: "Let There Be Less: A Christian musing on nature, faith, and farmers’ markets" by Emily Ruppel
      • Poem: "The New Plant and Animal Kingdoms" by Steve Roels
      • Essay: "Of Wonder and Zebrafish" by Ruth Bancewicz
      • Essay: "The Lion, the Spider and the Image of God" by Mike Clifford
      • Cat Poem 1: "Lullaby for Stomp the Cat" by Sarah Ruden
      • Cat Poem 2: "Letting the Dog In" by Emily Ruppel
      • Cat Poem 3: "Reading on the Couch" by Carol Ruppel
      • Essay: "Angry Discussions: A Wrong Way to Stand for Creation Care or Science Advocacy " by Oscar Gonzalez
      • Essay: "Ethical Eating on a Catholic Campus: Some thoughts from a student of environmental studies" by Grace Mican
    • Winter 15: "Information" >
      • Letter from the Editor: Winter 2015
      • Essay: "What Does it Mean to Know?" by Mark Shelhamer
      • Essay: "Knowledge of Information" by Randy Isaac
      • Photo Essay: "Being Here" by Carol Ruppel
      • Essay: "Truth Anyone?" by Walt Hearn
      • Poem: "Transformation" by Ruth Hoppin
      • Interview: "Unpacking Chance, Providence, and the Abraham's Dice Conference" by Olivia Peterson
      • Essay: "On Knowledge and Information–Tales from an English childhood" by Mike Clifford
      • Poem: "Space Travel" by Ruth Hoppin
      • Essay: "Resuming the Science/Faith Conversation" by Jamin Hubner
    • Archives >
      • Past Contributors
      • Unpublished Materal >
        • Richard Graven A Vision of God
      • Fall 14: "History of Science & Christianity" >
        • Letter from the Editor: Fall 2014
        • Essay: "Orchids: Why the founders of modern science cultivated virtue" by Ruth Bancewicz
        • Essay: "Science Falsely So Called: Fundamentalism and Science" by Edward B. Davis
        • Essay: "The Other 'Atom' in Christianity and Science" by Karissa D Carlson
        • Poem: "The Hermit" by Ciara C. Reyes
        • Essay: "Players" by Walt Hearn
        • Essay: "Using Storytelling and Drama in Engineering Lectures" by Mike Clifford
        • Essay: "Is There Anything Historical About Adam and Eve?" by Mike Beidler
        • Essay: "Finding Harmony in Controversy: The early years of the ASA" by Terry Gray and Emily Ruppel
        • Levity: "Fish n' Chips" by Mike Arnold
        • Essay: "Stories" by Walt Hearn
      • Summer 14: "Christian Women in Science" >
        • Letter from the Editor: Summer 2014
        • Essay: "I Really Did That Work: A brief survey of notable Christian Women in Science" by Lynn Billman
        • Essay: "He + She = We" by Walt Hearn
        • Photo Essay: "The Faces of Nature" by Susan Limone
        • Essay: "On Grass that Withers: Overloaded brains and spiritual discernment" by Janet Warren
        • Interview: "Ancient Humans and Modern Choices" with Briana Pobiner
        • Essay: "Crystallographer, Quaker, Pacifist, & Trailblazing Woman of Science: Kathleen Lonsdale’s Christian Life 'Lived Experimentally'” by Kylie Miller and Stephen M. Contakes
        • Artwork: "Eden, Zion" by Harold Sikkema
        • Essay: "Asking the Right Question" by Dorothy Boorse
        • Interview: "Not So Dry Bones" with Mary Schweitzer
        • Essay: "Is Being a Mother and a Scientist Worth It?" by Abby Hodges
        • Essay: "Playing God: A theological reflection on medicine, divine action, and personhood" by Ann Pederson
        • Column: Great Gravity! "BNL 1976 – 2000 (Part 1)"
      • Spring 14: "G&N: The 2-year tour" >
        • Letter from the Editor: Spring 2014
        • Essay: "Political Science?" by Walt Hearn
        • Comic: "Education"
        • Essay: "Finding Hominids with Kamoya Kimeu" by Fred Heeren
        • Poem: "Ziggurat (and Helix)" by Amy Chai
        • Creative Nonfiction: "One Summer" by Dave Harrity
        • Essay: "Do the Heavens Declare the Glory of God?" by Owen Gingerich
        • Comic: "Miracle Mechanics" by Emily Ruppel
        • Essay: "I Sleep A Lot" by Denis O. Lamoureux
        • Poem: "Angels and RNA" by Walt Hearn
        • Comic: "Seminary"
        • Essay: "The Elegance of Antibodies" by Craig M. Story
        • Photo Essay: "Conversing with Nature" by Thomas Jay Oord
        • Essay: "Under the Tutelage of Trees: Arboreal Lessons on Virtue, Kinship, and Integrity" by Peter M. J. Hess
        • Comic: "Humor"
        • Essay: "Science and Scientism in Biology" by Sy Garte
        • Interview: "Biopsychology and Faith" with Heather Looy
      • Winter 14: "Health & Medicine" >
        • Letter from the Editor: Winter 2014
        • Poem: I Have a Piece of Cow in My Heart
        • Essay: Acts of God: Are all mutations random?
        • Column: Beyond Science
        • Poem: Psalm 1859
        • Essay: The Tao of Departing
        • Essay: The Tao of Departing p 2
        • Photo Essay: Walking in Winter
        • Essay: A Christian Doctor on Evolution, Faith, and Suffering
        • Opinion: Making Friends with Frankencorn
        • Poem: Chiaroscuro
        • Interview: "Biopsychology and Faith" with Heather Looy
        • Essay: "The Elegance of Antibodies"
        • Artwork: "Helix" by Harold Sikkema
        • Column: Great Gravity! "Dissertations and Revelations"
      • Fall 13: "Environmentalism" >
        • Letter from the Editor: Fall 2013
        • Poem: Time
        • Essay: Is there Hope for the Ocean?
        • Artwork: "Earthly Tent" by Harold Sikkema
        • Essay: What is Responsible Eating?
        • Essay: Are We Too Obsessed with Food?
        • Poem: Conversation on Creation
        • Essay: Creation Care from the Perspective of a Conservation Geneticist
        • Essay: Mobilizing Scientists for Environmental Missions
        • Poem: Paleocene Spring
        • Interview: Dorothy Boorse
        • Column: Beyond Science
        • Essay: New Testament Motivation for Environmental Stewardship
        • Poem: Stone of House
        • Column: Great Gravity! "Running the Data"
      • Summer 13: "Science & Creativity" >
        • Column: Beyond Science
        • Letter from the Editor: Summer 2013
        • Column: Faith on the Field
        • Poem: Trying Not to Be Too Sunny
        • Comic: "Work in Progress"
        • Essay: Do the Heavens Declare the Glory of God?
        • Essay: Science, Faith, and Creativity
        • Essay: One Summer
        • Comic: "Miracle Mechanics"
        • Featured Essay: Poetry for Scientists
        • Artwork: "Confluence" by Harold Sikkema
        • Column: Great Gravity! "The Great Ungainly Journey West"
      • Winter 13 >
        • Letter from the Editor: Winter 2013
        • Column: Faith on the Field
        • Comic: "Apples to Apples"
        • Creative Nonfiction: "One Winter"
        • Column: Clearing the Middle Path
        • Essay: Science and Scientism in Biology
        • Poem: "Angels and RNA"
        • Feature Article: I Sleep A Lot
        • Poem: "Fragile"
        • Column: Beyond Science
        • CiS 2012 Student Essay Contest: Runner Up
        • Essay: Why Awe?
        • CiS 2012 Student Essay Contest: First Place
        • Column: Great Gravity! "A Bit of Perspective"
        • Column: Modern Frontiers, Ancient Faith
        • Column: Time Capsule
      • Fall 12 >
        • Letter from the Editor: Fall 2012
        • The Director's Corner
        • Column: Faith on the Field
        • Comic: "Education"
        • Interview: Greetings from Mars!
        • Column: Clearing the Middle Path
        • Photo Essay: "Conversing with Nature"
        • Comic: "Abe"
        • Essay: Evolution and Imago Dei
        • Poem: "Locus Iste"
        • Levity: Beyond Science
        • Essay: God, Occam, and Science
        • Opinion: Humility and Grace
        • Levity: Great Gravity! "The College Years"
        • Poem: "Q.E.D."
        • Essay: My Overlapping Magisteria
        • Column: Time Capsule
      • Summer 12 >
        • Table of Contents
        • Letter from the Editor: Summer 2012
        • Director's Corner
        • Column: Faith on the Field
        • Column: Modern Frontiers, Ancient Faith
        • Comic: "Seminary"
        • Poem: "Temptation in the Wired Wilderness"
        • Levity: Beyond Science
        • Opinion: "The Breaking Bread"
        • Comic: "Humor"
        • Column: Clearing the Middle Path
        • Poem: "Ziggurat (and Helix)"
        • Levity: Great Gravity! "The Grade School Years"
        • Opinion: "Adam and the Origin of Man"
        • Poem: "Missa Solemnis"
        • Column: Time Capsule
      • Spring 12 >
        • Table of Contents
        • Letter from the Editor: Spring 2012
        • Director's corner
        • Column: Faith on the Field
        • Column: Time Capsule
        • Poem: "From Where do We Come?"
        • Featured Scientist
        • Levity: Beyond Science
        • Essay: "Faith and Science"
        • Fiction: "A Matter of Dust"
        • Levity: Great Gravity! "The Early Years"
        • Opinion: "Phony Environmental Theology"
        • Fiction: "Illumination"
        • Interview: "Process"
        • Column: Modern Frontiers, Ancient Faith
    • Spring 13 >
      • Letter from the Editor: Spring 2013
      • Column: Faith on the Field
      • Faith on the Field, cont.
      • Poem: Scientist's Psalm
      • Essay: A Downcast Spirit Dries Up the Bones: More perspectives on depression
      • Artwork: "Lipo Osteo" by Harold Sikkema
      • Feature: The Bible, Evolution, and Grace
      • Column: Beyond Science
      • Book Review: Prisoners of Hope
      • Column: Great Gravity! "The Grad School Years"
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The Other "Atom" in Christianity and Science

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Dalton's "new system" of atoms and molecules Wikipedia
by Karissa D. Carlson

Science and religion in the Western world have been closely connected throughout history; changes in one discipline have influenced the other, occasionally resulting in temporary tensions. Many historians have argued that most of the historical ‘conflicts’ between science and religion are better categorized as conflicts between scientists or between religious leaders, or as situations that are better understood in the context of the time period in which they existed[1],[2],[3],[4]. In addition, many of those historical tensions seem to be non-issues in our current age; they were resolved somewhere along the way. It seems to me that these moments of conflict offer potential insight to resolving current struggles and preventing future issues between religion and science. Dalton’s atomic theory is one such example – it was originally rejected by Christians but is now a foundational principle in chemistry.

John Dalton, an English chemist, developed and formally stated the atomic theory in the 19th century. An introductory General Chemistry textbook describes Dalton’s Atomic Theory according to the following statements:

1.     Elements are made up of tiny particles called atoms.

2.     Each element is characterized by the mass of its atoms.

3.     The chemical combination of elements to make different chemical compounds occurs when atoms join in small whole-number ratios.

4.     Chemical reactions only rearrange how atoms are combined in chemical compounds; the atoms themselves don’t change[5].

For any current student in chemistry, these basic tenets of the discipline are not surprising or in any way controversial[6]. It would seem absurd for an individual to argue that the concept of atoms is contrary to religious beliefs, given our modern understanding of science and religion. In the early Christian church, however, atomism was rejected due to its association with an atheistic philosophy.

Ancient Atomism

Hundreds of years before Dalton developed his modern scientific theory of the atom, ancient Greek philosophers had their own ideas. Leucippus is often recognized as the originator of the theory of atomism, [7] but Democritus, his student, is more widely celebrated as the one who truly developed and established atomism.  According to the Atomists, the natural world was composed of two different constituents: individual physical bodies and void[8]. The individual bodies, called atoms, were considered the primary items that created all else through formation and dissolution of aggregates of atoms17.   Atoms were separated by empty space referred to as ‘void’.

Following Democritus and Leucippus, Epicurus (341-270 BCE) elaborated on the atomist hypothesis. He integrated it into his Epicurean physics[9] as set out below:

1.     Nothing comes from what is not nor disappears in what is not.

2.     The all is made of bodies and void, which are the only complete natures.

3.     Amongst bodies, some are composites; others are those from which composites are made.

4.     The all is unlimited or infinite both in the number of atoms and the extent of void.

5.     The number of different atomic shapes cannot be conceived.

6.     The atoms move constantly and endlessly because of the existence of void.

With these principles as his philosophical framework, Epicurus developed a very materialistic view that rejected teleological explanations: if all things are composed of atoms, then all of life is the result of atoms interacting without any purpose, direction, or final cause [10]. He reasoned then, that the highest pursuit in life should be the pursuit of pleasure. It is important to note that, to Epicurus, the term ‘pleasure’ meant diminution of pain as the highest pursuit, not the lascivious, self-indulgent philosophy often associated with Epicureanism21. While Epicurus did not deny the existence of gods or discourage religion, he reasoned the gods were too busy pursuing their own pleasures to be concerned with humans. Social factors, described below, led to the association of Epicureanism with atheism.

Early Christianity and Nature

The early Christian church had the difficult task of assimilating Christian doctrine into a coherent theological framework within the Greco-Roman world. Many of the early Christians received Greco-Roman schooling, which were dominated by Greek Scholastic philosophies, such as Aristotelianism and Epicureanism. As a result, many of the underlying philosophical methodologies of the time were incorporated into Christianity.

St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo in North Africa, is recognized as the primary theologian to establish early Christian attitudes towards nature[11].  Augustine was hesitant to attribute much value to pagan philosophies, such as Aristotelianism, but he was influenced by Origen’s allegorical reading of both scripture and nature. He recognized that natural philosophy was a means to an end, so he encouraged studying natural philosophy solely for the purpose of biblical exegesis. Thus, natural philosophy was relegated to the status of handmaiden to theology and it was actively pursued as a religious necessity[12]. Augustine’s handmaiden formula dominated the Christian pursuit of natural science in the early middle ages and a handful of educated Christians wrote treatises entwining natural philosophy within Christianity.

Christian attitudes towards natural philosophy shifted around the 11th and 12th centuries. Along with the end of the Middle Ages, Europe experienced a resurgence of Scholasticism and increased interest in Greek philosophy. Aristotelian philosophy was deeply integrated into the curriculum of the educational system because it encompassed nearly all aspects of life[13]. This presented a challenge to Christian theology, as components of Aristotle’s philosophy were potentially incompatible with Christian doctrine. Recall that Aristotle claimed the earth was coeternal with God; the world was not created by God. Furthermore, Aristotelianism was exclusively dependent upon sense perception and rationalism to achieve truth, excluding spiritual or biblical revelation. Aristotle’s philosophy was too socially valuable, however, and considerable effort was made to fuse Christianity with Aristotelianism.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Christian theologian and philosopher, was a key figure in the process of accommodating Aristotle in Christianity. In particular, his work Summa Theologiae, focused on incorporating Aristotle’s philosophy into the existing Christian theology. To accommodate the Aristotelian eternal earth, Aquinas argued that there was no reason why the earth couldn’t be both created and eternal. Apparently, this was an acceptable accommodation and, as time progressed Christian theology became deeply embedded in Aristotelian philosophy.

In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, while Augustine was promoting natural philosophy as handmaiden to theology, Epicurean philosophy came to be perceived as a threat to Christianity, largely because the Christian concepts of Incarnation and resurrection of the body were incompatible with the notion of atomism. Early Christian authors, such as Tertullian and Lactantius, openly attacked Epicureanism and presented Epicurus and his followers as madmen with hedonistic lifestyles. Epicurus’s pursuits of pleasure, as well as his inclusion of women in his school, were likely the sources of these inflated claims21. By the 4th century, Epicureanism was definitively categorized as a pagan, atheistic philosophy.

With the integration of Aristotelianism into Christianity in the late medieval period, Epicureanism was dealt a final blow. Aristotle claimed all matter was composed of the four visible elements that were continuous; Epicurus’s atoms were indivisible, invisible, and separated by void. Aristotle believed in the immortality of the soul; Epicurus believed that atoms constituted all of humanity. Thus, Epicurean natural philosophy was not compatible with the Aristotelian conception of the world and, by association it was not compatible with Christianity. Epicurean philosophy was prohibited by the church and atomism rejected along with it. Eventually, the works and philosophy of Epicurus and his followers decreased in circulation and most were destroyed, degraded, or lost in monastic libraries.

Reviving Atomism

Aristotle dominated the western educational system and Christian theology until the 16th century when the Protestant Reformation changed the religious and academic climate. By questioning the authority of the Catholic Church, reformers’ brought into question the source of all authority. Aristotelian philosophy was also wounded deeply when Galileo claimed evidential support for the Copernican model of the universe (the earth revolving around the sun) rather than the Aristotelian model (the sun revolving around the earth). It became necessary to look for sources of truth outside of the church and beyond Aristotle. Ancient texts were revisited and revised. In short, the Reformation upset both the theological and philosophical foundations of the time.

Laurence Carlin argues that these changes had an immense impact on the development of natural philosophy and, in particular, on the appearance of Empiricists in Europe[14]. The Empiricists were philosophers who focused on questions of what knowledge is and how one knows when one has knowledge. Empiricists emphasized the acquisition of data through experimentation rather than the Aristotelian method of observation and reason. Empirical science instituted an altogether different mode of investigation—the ‘new science’.

Carlin lists eight natural philosophers whom he considers the most influential Empiricists; two of these Empiricists are crucial to this narrative: Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) and Robert Boyle (1627-1691). These natural philosophers significantly contributed to reviving the Epicurean notion of atoms and revising the philosophy to fit into the changing worldview of their time.

Pierre Gassendi was a priest who became dissatisfied with Aristotelianism and the educational requirement to teach the philosophy as part of the institutional curriculum. He was motivated to ‘Christianize’ atomism; that is, to prove that Epicurean atomism, with a few modifications, was better suited to Christianity than Aristotelianism[15].  Gassendi argued that God created a finite number of atoms at the beginning of the universe, rather than the Epicurus’s infinite number of atoms. In opposition to Epicurean materialism, Gassendi also claimed that humans had an immaterial soul that causally influenced the material body. With these modifications, Gassendi eliminated the primary theological arguments against Epicurean atomism and wove it into a framework that was coherent with post-Reformation theology.

Carlin describes Robert Boyle as a deeply religious man dedicated to the triumph of Empiricism over Aristotelianism. Committed to reconciling atomism with Christianity, he put considerable effort into eliminating the atheistic reputation that was associated with Epicureanism. In his corpuscular hypothesis, Boyle claimed that all bodies are made up of one kind of material substance that was contained in minute particles called corpuscles, which were similar to Epicurean atoms. Boyle’s corpuscles, however, were theoretically divisible and capable of alchemical transmutations, while Epicurean atoms were not. Despite his preoccupation with alchemy, Boyle’s corpuscular hypothesis set a strong theoretical foundation for the development of modern atomism.

Common to the 16th and 17th centuries was the notion that God provides revelation through two books: the book of Scripture and the book of nature[16]. Boyle took this concept so far as to argue that the natural philosopher was equivalent to a Christian priest[17]. Natural philosophy, therefore, was not only necessary, but essential. As the study of Scripture was an obligation of the faith, so, too, was the study of nature. As a result, Boyle justified the expanding empirical study of nature, including his corpuscular hypothesis, as an obligation of the faith.

Finally, both Gassendi and Boyle adhered to voluntarism, or the notion that, by his own free will, God chose to create the world with an order that can be observed by humans[18]. By employing empirical methods, one could test and discern how God created[19]. As voluntarists, Gassendi and Boyle selected empirical methodologies as the means by which to study nature so they might gain insight into God’s creation.

The work of Gassendi, Boyle, and several other natural led to the work of John Dalton in the 19th century. Dalton compiled his own experimental observations, the philosophical work of Gassendi and Boyle,[20] empirical results from of 18th century scientists (such as Antoine Lavoisier and Joseph Proust), as well as influence from Newtonian physics into the basis of our modern atomistic theory of nature. Dalton’s atomic theory has provided the foundation upon which much of modern chemistry is based. Up until the 19th century, religious considerations continued to be employed in lending credence to the ‘new science’ of empiricism[21]. Yet, for Dalton in the 19th century, science was just emerging as a discipline of study independent from philosophy and theology[22]. Despite the fact that he was a deeply religious Quaker, it is not clear whether or not Dalton’s religious perspectives influenced or motivated his work as a chemist.

Alan Chalmers has argued that much of Dalton’s atomic theory was more philosophical than empirical in substance37. Subsequent experimentation by several other chemists was required in order to fully substantiate his claims, so like most nuanced and complex scientific theories, Dalton’s atomic theory has required revisions in order to arrive at our current understanding of atomism. While the relationship between science and religion also continue to change, conflicts, such as those surrounding evolution, still exist. What, then, can we understand about modern relationships between these disciplines in light of this historical narrative? I believe all interactions between science and religion, whether modern or ancient, are best understood in the context of the existing frameworks, or paradigms, of science and theology in the time period in which the interaction occurred. Looking back to look forward may help us all understand more about why we believe what we believe, and enrich conversations for future generations.

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REFERENCES:

[1] Shea, William R. Recent Themes in The History of Science and Religion, part 1, ed. Donald A. Yerxa, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia 2009.

[2] Lindberg, David C.  “The fate of science in patristic and Medieval Christendom”, The Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion, ed. Peter Harrison, Cambridge University Press, 2010.

[3] Russell, Colin A. “The Conflict of Science and Religion”, Science and Religion, A Historical Introduction, ed. Gary B. Ferngren, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.

[4] Lindberg, David and Numbers, Ronald. “Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science”, Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith, 39.3: 140-149.

[5] McMurry, Fay Chemistry, 6th ed; Prentice Hall 2012

[6]With the recognition that the atomic theory, as stated, was a foundational theory that has required some minor modifications from our current level of understanding.

[7] Berryman, Sylvia, “Leucippus”, The Stanford Encylopedia of Philosophy, Ed. Edward N. Zalta, 2010.

[8] Berryman, Sylvia, “Ancient Atomism”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ed. Edward N. Zalta, Winter 2011.

[9] Morel, Pierre-Marie. “Epicurean atomism.” The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Ed. James Warren. Cambridge University Press 2009. Cambridge Collections Online. Cambridge University press. 23 July 2012 DOI: 10.1017/CCOL9780521873475.005.

[10] Greenblatt, Stephen. The Swerve: How the World Became Modern. W.W. Norton & Company, 2011.

[11] Lindberg, David C. “Early Christian Attitudes toward Nature”, Science & Religion A Historical Introduction, Ed. Gary B. Ferngren, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.

[12] Gauch, Hugh G., Jr. Scientific Method in Practice, Cambridge University Press, 2003.

[13] Lindberg, David C. “Medieval Science and Religion”, Science & Religion A Historical Introduction, Ed. Gary B. Ferngren, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.

[14] Carlin, Laurence. The Empiricists, Continuum International Publishing, 2009.

[15] Osler, Margaret J. “Gassendi on Fortune, Fate, and Divination”, Atoms, Pneuma, and Tranquility: Epicurean and Stoic Themes in European Thought, ed, Margaret J. Osler, Cambridge University Press, 1991

[16] Harrison, Peter. “ ‘The Book of Nature’ and Early Modern Science”, The Book of Nature in Early Modern and Modern History, eds. Van Berkal and Vanderjagt, Leuven: Peeters, 2006.

[17] Shapin, Steven. A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, The Unviersity of Chicago Press, 1994.

[18] Henry, John. “Religion and the Scientific Revolution”, The Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion, ed. Peter Harrison, Cambridge University Press, 2010.

[19] Harrison, Peter. “Voluntarism and Early Modern Science”, History of Science, 2002, 40: 63-89.

[20] Chalmers, Alan. The Scientist’s Atom and the Philosopher’s Stone, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 2009.

[21] Harrison, Peter. “Religion, the Royal Society, and the Rise of Science”, Theology and Science, 2008, 6(3): 255-271

[22] Brooke, John Hedley. “Science and Secularization”, The Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion, ed. Peter Harrison, Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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God & Nature magazine is a publication of the American Scientific Affiliation, an international network of Christians in science: www.asa3.org